Dr. Joanna Piątkowska-Małecka /University of Warsaw

INTRODUCTION

During the excavation work carried out in the years 2008-2010 by the Polish-Syrian Archaeological Expedition to Tell Arbid led by R. Koliński from the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, thirty graves dating back to the Middle Bronze Age (MB II, Khabur period) were discovered in sector P. In some of them, apart from human remains and funerary equipment, there were also bone remains of animals, constituting traces of offerings made during funeral rites. The aim of this study is to present the results of archaeozoological analysis of found fragments and attempt to reconstruct on this basis the role of animals used during rituals.

MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHODS

Faunal bone remains were subjected to standard archaeozoological analysis (Lasota-Moskalewska 2008; Rietz and Wing 1999) and studied for species and anatomical identification. Species determination consisted in assigning individual fragments to a specific animal. In the case of the majority of bone elements of small ruminants, due to their significant morphological similarity, it is difficult to classify them clearly as belonging to a particular species. For this reason, a joint group called “sheep/goat” was created. For some fragments, a closer identification was possible, which was made following the characteristics described by Z. Schramm (1967). A similar situation occurred in the case of the Equidae remains. Some of the bones were too fragmentarily preserved, and it is difficult to say whether they came from domesticated animals (horse and donkey), wild animals (onager) or interspecific hybrids. Presumed affiliation to a species was determined by the size of the preserved fragments.

The anatomical determination consisted of the assignment of individual bone remains to specific parts of the skeleton (Table 1). For graves with at least 50 fragments of small ruminants remains, an anatomical distribution analysis was performed (Table 2). For this purpose, individual bone elements were combined into groups designated by similar nutritional value, i.e. high- and low-value parts of the carcass. The first one includes thorax (fragments of ribs and vertebrae with the sacral bone) and proximal segments of the forelegs (scapula and humeral, radial and ulnar bones) as well as of back limbs (pelvic, femoral, tibial and fibula bones). The second includes remains of the head (skull bones, mandibular bones and teeth) and distal segments of both forelegs and hind legs (carpal, metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal bones and finger segments). The percentages of particular groups were calculated in relation to the total number of remains of individual species. The obtained values were compared with the reference distribution, i.e. occurring in the skeleton (Lasota-Moskalewska 2008: 238).

The age and sex of the animals have been specified. Age was specified on the basis of concretion grade of long bones epiphysis with their diaphysis shafts (Kolda 1936) and the dentition state (Lutnicki 1972). Sex was specified by using features of sexual dimorphism (Lasota-Moskalewska 2008). The sex of pigs was identified based on the shape and size of the canine teeth and their dental alveoli (Habermehl 1975). The identification of the bovine sex was made according to the criteria set by V.I. Calkin (1967), and of the dog on the basis of the presence or absence of the penile bone.

Osteometric examination of preserved bones and measurements of their fragments were made according to the method given by A. von den Driesch (1976). They were used to assess the morphology of some species (Table 3). Some of the dimensions were directly transposed into points, using the hundred-point scale created for cattle (Lasota-Moskalewska 1984) and pig (Lasota-Moskalewska et al. 1987). In addition, based on the length of some bones, the withers height was calculated: for pig and sheep, using the coefficients worked out by M. Teichert (1969, 1975), for cattle, using coefficients according to Fock (1966), and for dog, according to Koudelka (1885, after Driesch and Boessneck 1974). The traces observed on the surfaces of some bones have been described.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ANIMAL BONES REMAINS 

During the three excavation seasons, thirty graves were discovered, and nine of them (30.0%) contained faunal bone remains, the subject of this study. In most cases, all the remains found in individual graves were analysed. The exception was made for two of them, GP26 and GP32, where the archaeozoological analysis was performed only for fragments discovered in the area of the shaft leading to the burial chamber. Consequently, there are no results for remains deposited directly in the chamber. The reason was that the mixed animal and human remains were handed over as a whole for anthropological analysis, which was carried out by A. Sołtysiak in 2010. The outbreak of war in Syria in the following year suspended the archaeological work in this country and prevented the study of the archaeozoological materials assigned by the anthropologist. 

Faunal bone remains were discovered in chamber graves, most of which had a “diamond” vault, and only two a barrel vault. In both types of graves, mainly post-consumption osseous remains were found. This is indicated by their state of preservation in the form of chips and by a few consumption marks observed on the surfaces of some of them. Apart from consumption waste, in the shaft of GP26, there was also a dog’s skeleton. It seems that another exceptional category is represented by a skull, probably of a donkey, which was placed on the brick structure of the grave chamber of GP32.

The characteristics of the osteological material found in individual graves are as follows:

GP02. The chamber grave with a “diamond” vault GP02 contained 51 bone fragments, most likely belonging to one sheep individual. They were found in a cluster in the north-eastern corner of the grave chamber, near the head of a 3-year-old child of unknown sex. The vast majority of remains (49 pieces) represented elements of the trunk valuable from the point of view of consumption, among which fragments of ribs, including the cartilaginous ones, sternum and vertebrae from thoracic, lumbar and caudal segments were distinguished. In addition, the right tibia and talus bone were determined. The fresh concretion of the distal tibial epiphysis with its diaphysis indicates that the individual was approximately 20-22 months old. Based on the lateral length of the talus, the height at the withers was calculated at 63.5 cm. This means that the sheep represented a small form, similar to a mouflon.

GP05. The chamber grave with a “diamond” vault GP05 contained 59 bone remains that were found near the northern wall of the grave chamber, behind a woman aged between 40 and 50 years who was buried there. All fragments, except for the cubital bone of an adult pig, belonged to one sheep or goat. Most of them represented elements of the trunk valuable from the point of view of consumption, i.e. ribs and vertebrae (53 fragments). Few came from the right hind limb; a fragment of the tibial bone, two tarsal bones and two fragments of one metatarsal bone were determined. Based on the observation of the fresh concretion of the distal epiphysis with the tibial bone shaft, it is clear that this individual was around the age of 20 months.

3) The chamber grave with a barrel vault GP07 contained 29 pieces of ribs and a fragment of the tibial bone of an adult sheep or goat. They were found in the chamber in which three adults were buried, including two men and a woman, but there is no information in the documentation as to the exact location of these osseous remains.

GP10. The chamber grave with a “diamond” vault GP10 contained a total of 18 osseous fragments belonging to a sheep or a goat and a pig. They were dispersed in the burial chamber, in which three people of undetermined sex and of various ages (12-15, 14-21 years old and mature but unspecified age) were deposited. The bones of a small ruminant were almost exclusively fragments of ribs and vertebrae (15 pieces); the exception was the talus bone undoubtedly belonging to a sheep. On the basis of its lateral length, the height at the withers was calculated at 59.0 cm. The sheep belonged to a small form. The pig was represented by a fragment of the molar and of the tarsal bone. The value of the measurement of its maximum length has been transposed to a hundred-point scale, obtaining 0 points. This means that this animal belonged to the domesticated form, was characterised by small body size, and its estimated height at the withers was approximately 50 cm.

GP12. The chamber grave with a “diamond” vault GP12 contained 48 bone remains of animals that accompanied the remains of a woman about 35-40 years of age. One piece of the ulnar bone belonged to an adult pig, the rest most likely to one sheep individual. Mainly thorax bones (vertebrae and ribs) and bones of the right hind limb were found, including a fragment of a femoral, tibial, calcaneal, tarsal and metatarsal bone and the III finger segment. The remains came from an individual about 2.5 years old. Based on the maximum length of the femur and the lateral length of the tarsal bone, the height at the withers was calculated at 55.1 cm and 56.7 cm, respectively, which indicates a small form. One part of the vertebra was slightly black burnt. An atypical thickening was observed on the dorsal surface of the III finger segment, which is a trace of a past inflammation.

GP13. The chamber grave with a “diamond” vault GP13 contained a fragment of a skull of an adult pig and 28 remains which most likely belonged to one young, less than 2-year-old sheep or goat. Osseous remains of animals were found in the south-western part of the burial chamber, behind the head of a woman buried there, who died aged between 30 and 35 years. Among the bones of a sheep or goat, the most numerous were vertebrae fragments of the thoracic and lumbar segment and ribs (23 fragments in total). A few elements came from the left hind limb, among which pelvic, tibial, tarsal and calcaneal bones were distinguished, as well as a fragment of the finger segment. One vertebra was black burnt.

GP19. The chamber grave with a “diamond” vault GP19 contained 145 bone remains, located in the north-western part of the burial chamber, behind the head of an adult woman buried there. Apart from one fragment of the pig’s ulnar bone, these were most probably remains of one individual of a sheep or goat. It was mainly represented by vertebrae from various parts of the vertebral column and ribs (96.5%). In addition, there were a few cranial fragments (1.4%) and extremity bones (a total of 2.1%, including a fragment of the shoulder blade, and of the metacarpal and tibial bone). At the time of death, the animal was about 3 years old.

GP26. The chamber grave with a barrel vault GP26 contained 329 bone fragments with post-consumption marks and 156 bones belonging to the almost complete skeleton of a dog. The remains were located in various places in the burial shaft leading to the chamber, in which 15 people were buried, both children and women and men of all ages.

In the assemblage of 329 post-consumption remains, 192 fragments (58.3%) were identified with regard to species and anatomy. They belonged to various species of domestic animals: sheep or goat (some fragments were unambiguously identified as sheep), cattle and pigs. The shares of bone remains of particular species were similar (about 33% each). Small ruminants were represented by different parts of the carcass. Most bones came from the thorax and the proximal segment of the hind limb, which were valuable from the point of view of consumption. Subsequently, fragments of the head and the proximal segment of the foreleg were noted. Bones of the distal segments of both extremities were much rarer. In this assemblage, 12 fragments coming from individuals killed before the age of 3.5 years were distinguished. On the basis of the lateral length of the tarsal bone, the height at the withers was calculated at 53.5 cm, which confirms that the animal belonged to a small form.

Slightly more than a half of the remains of cattle were skull bones and teeth, and finger segments constituted the second most numerous group. Few fragments represented the proximal and distal sections of both extremities, and one vertebra was also recorded. The age was specified based on the abrasion degree of several molars: four of them came from young individuals, under 5 years of age, one from an animal about 5 years old, and another one from an animal about 7 years old. The two metatarsal bones belonged to males. Twelve bone fragments were measured, and the values were converted into a hundred-point scale. Two of them ranged from 0 to 30 points, nine from 31 to 70 points, and one corresponded to 82 points. Most of the remains came from animals belonging to the type Bos taurus brachycerosand were mainly of medium, less often small body size; only one individual was larger, of the type Bos taurus primigenius. Based on the length of the metacarpal bones of the male, the height at the withers was calculated at 123.7 cm.

Pig bones represented all parts of the carcass. Dominant among them were the bones of two valuable parts of the carcass, namely the proximal segment of the foreleg and the trunk. In second place were the remains of the head with teeth. The bones of the distal segment of the foreleg, hind limb and finger segments were recorded in the smallest number. In the assemblage of the pig’s remains, eight fragments came from young individuals, and one of them belonged to a female. Four bone fragments were measured, and the values ​​were converted into a hundred-point scale, obtaining 15, 24, 26 and 30 points. They belonged to the domesticated form, and the individuals were of small and medium body sizes. Additionally, based on the length of the tarsal bone, the height at the withers was calculated at 60.8 cm.

Next to the remains bearing the characteristics of post-consumption waste, in the southern part of the burial shaft, there was a burial of a dog. The bones belonged to one adult individual. The skeleton was arranged in anatomical order, on the NW-SE axis, with the head facing south-east. Almost all anatomical elements were present, except for the penile bone, which may suggest that it was a female. The height at the withers was calculated based on the length of the long bones of the limbs preserved in their entirety. It varied from 49.4 to 51.6 cm; on average it was about 50 cm.

GP32. The chamber grave with a “diamond” vault GP32 contained osseous elements of the skull and mandible as well as molars, premolars and incisors of an animal of the Equidae family. The skull was placed on the brick structure of the burial chamber, exactly on its south-western corner. In the grave, which had a communication shaft from the east, four adults were buried, including one 30-35-year-old woman. The size of the preserved remains of an equine animal suggests that they belonged to a donkey. Based on the abrasion of the incisors, the age of the animal was estimated at approximately 5 years.

Table 1. Comparison of bone remains found in graves in sector P at Tell Arbid 

Table 2. Anatomical distribution of sheep and goat remains.

Table 3. Dimensions of faunal bones.

Abbreviations used: GL – the largest bone length, Bd – the largest width of the distal end, BT to greatest breadth of the trochlea, Bp – the largest width of the proximal end, SLC – the smallest length of the scapula neck, GLI – lateral length, GLC – cephalic length, SD – the largest width of the shaft, DD – the largest thickness of the shaft, LA – the length of the acetabulum).

ANIMALS IN THE FUNERAL RITE

Among the population inhabiting the settlement in the middle period of the Bronze Age, there was a widespread habit of depositing parts of animal bodies and sometimes entire animals into some of the graves. In sector P, thirty graves from this period were discovered, including nine with faunal remains. They are also known from other investigated sectors (Piątkowska-Małecka and Wygnańska 2006, 2012); however, they were much less frequent there. Faunal remains were found in chamber graves, most often distinguished by the so-called “diamond” construction of the vault; only in two cases, they occurred in graves with a barrel vault. In all instances, mainly bone fragments with characteristics of post-consumption waste were found. This is indicated by their state of preservation in the form of small, crushed fragments and by the few consumption marks (traces of charring). In addition to post-consumption remains, in one feature (GP26), the burial of a dog was also found, and in another (GP32), the skull of an equine animal, most probably a donkey. It was discovered in an unusual context, namely placed on a brick structure constituting the vault or corner of the burial chamber, which was filled up after the construction of the grave. This phenomenon, being isolated, is difficult to interpret.

Selected parts of a sheep or goat carcass put into the graves were most often the ones valuable from the point of view of consumption, mainly the thorax, and more rarely the proximal segments of extremities, primarily of the foreleg, of the sheep. Bone elements of the remaining parts of the carcass either did not occur at all (like the head) or occurred in small quantities (like distal segments of extremities). A different situation was recorded only in the case of GP26, where the results of the archaeozoological analysis are known only for the remains obtained from the shaft leading to the burial chamber. In this case, the analysis of the anatomical distribution of the remains of small ruminants showed that the shares of the individual parts of the carcass were similar to the model skeleton. A similar situation was also noted in the grave G8/9/SS37/55 (Piątkowska-Małecka and Wygnańska 2006), where the analysis was carried out for the remains found both in the shaft and in the burial chamber. It shows that the anatomical distribution of the sheep and goat remains from the shaft was similar to the model skeleton (like in GP26), while the bones of the thorax dominated in the chamber. It cannot be ruled out that the inhabitants were guided by various motives when placing animals in specific places of burial. Perhaps the remains found inside the chamber were a type of sacrifice or equipment for the deceased on his way to the afterlife, while osseous remains found in the shaft were leftovers from the funeral meal that were thrown into the shaft during its backfilling after the funeral ceremony.

Apart from the selection of specific parts of the carcass, it draws attention to the fact that animals deposited in the graves were often killed before reaching morphological maturity, i.e. below the age of four years. Choosing valuable parts of the carcass of young specimens indicates that pieces of meat placed in grave chambers were of rich nutritional and flavouring values. Sheep belonged to a small form resembling in appearance the Asian mouflon, with a height at the withers equal to about 60 cm. They were most likely selected from breeding flocks. Small ruminants formed the basis of meat consumption of the inhabitants of the settlement, which is confirmed by the results of archaeozoological analysis of post-consumption remains found in layers and features from the Khabur period (Piątkowska-Małecka and Koliński 2006).

In addition to the remains of sheep and goats which were found in the graves most frequently, there were also a few bone fragments belonging to other species of domesticated animals, namely pigs and cattle. The few remains of the pig had probably been added accidentally during the graves’ backfilling, which is also confirmed by stratigraphic observations. The exception were the remains found in the shaft leading to the burial chamber of GP26. They constituted an assemblage of anatomically different bones, some of which came from young individuals. These animals belonged to a fully domesticated form, were small and medium in body size with the height at the withers about 60-70 cm.

The remains of cattle were found only in the shaft leading to the burial chamber of GP26. Dominant among them were parts of the head, low-value in terms of consumption, and finger segments. It seems, therefore, that in the case of this species there existed different rules for the selection of parts of the carcass as compared to small ruminants. The reasons for this are unknown. Cattle remains represented primarily the Bos taurus brachycerostype, with the height at the withers of about 90 cm; few individuals were characterised by larger body size and a height of over 120 cm.

Faunal osseous remains were found in graves, both individual and collective, in which the deceased were of different sexes and ages – children, adolescents and adults. On the basis of the analysed material, it seems that there is no relation between the animal offering and the age and sex of the buried person. However, the results of the analysis show that in the case of individual burials, animal bones occurred in graves of children and women of different ages but not in the graves with male burials. At the current stage of research, it is difficult to indicate the reasons for this.

Faunal osseous remains in the burial chambers were generally found in clusters, often in the immediate vicinity of human remains, and in the case of individual graves, near the heads of the dead. On this basis, it can be assumed that they were traces of offerings intended directly for the deceased, for example as a food supply on their way to the underworld. The remains found in the grave shaft could be of a different character, namely, the remnants of food ingested during the funeral ceremony.

The post-consumption remains of animals found in the graves, constituting the remnants of the offerings for the dead, were most likely sacrificed during the funeral. This is confirmed by the information contained in the cuneiform texts, which describe a funeral ritual called kispumperformed as part of a mortuary cult, which meant, among other things, a sacrifice of food and drink. Kispumwas celebrated during the funeral and later repeated cyclically during various ceremonies related to the cult of the dead (Tsukimoto 1985). Sometimes the sacrifice was made three times, firstly for the ruler of the underworld, goddess Ereshkigal, secondly for the spirits of the dead from the family and, thirdly, for the deceased himself (Tsukimoto 1985: 134). The texts also show that bread and water were the most common offerings, and animals or meat dishes made from sheep and young cattle were sometimes sacrificed as well.

Finds of post-consumption remains of animals in graves are also known from other sectors investigated at Tell Arbid (Piątkowska-Małecka and Wygnańska 2006, 2012), although they were less frequent there, and from other sites from the Middle Bronze Age located in the Khabur river basin, among others from Tell Mozan (Dohmann-Pfälzner and Pfälzner 2000) and Chagar Bazar (Cordy et al. 2009). In Chagar Bazar, most frequently found in the graves were bones of young sheep and pigs, less often goats, gazelles and birds. It was observed that in the case of sheep the elements of the thorax were placed in the grave chamber and the low-value distal parts of the extremities inside the shaft leading to the chamber. The population living in Tell Arbid and Chagar Bazar was characterised by similar habits regarding the choice of species and body parts of animals intended for sacrifice, especially in respect to dominant species, i.e. sheep and goats.

Besides the remains of consumed meat, a burial of a dog was found in the shaft of GP26. It was discovered in the southern part of the shaft leading to the burial chamber, in which there was a collective burial, consisting of at least 15 individuals of different sexes and ages. The skeleton belonged to an adult, medium-sized dog, most likely a female. It was accompanied by post-consumption remains of other animal species. The positioning of the dog near the deceased indicates that it should be associated with its role of the guardian of the dead, not with the expression of some kind of emotional bond between the dog and its owner. Thus, it would reflect the function that the dog fulfilled during its lifetime as a watchman and man’s companion.

Similar finds of dog burials are not numerous. At Tell Arbid, another one was located in the south-eastern corner of the grave chamber G8/9/SS/37/55 and was separated by a low wall from the burial of a young woman deposited in the shaft. The skeleton of the dog was preserved in anatomical order, resting on the left side, with the head facing south and straightened extremities. The remains belonged to a young, about 18-month-old individual. The lack of penile bone suggests that it was a female (Piątkowska-Małecka and Wygnańska 2006). Other similar finds are known, inter alia, from the sites in Selenkahiye (Carter and Parker 1995: 109), Tell Madhur (Zarins 1986: 172), Tell Barri (G763, Pecorella 1999: 15-19) or Tell Brak (Clutton-Brock 2001).

Summing up, it can be stated that in the Middle Bronze Age, the inhabitants of the settlement put in some of the graves parts of animals’ bodies, most often sheep and goats. Parts of the carcass valuable from the point of view of consumption were selected (mainly thorax and proximal segment of hind limb), often originating from individuals killed at a young age, before reaching morphological maturity. These remains are most likely a trace of a funeral and mourning sacrifice called kispum, made for the dead and gods of the underworld. The burials of dogs played a different role. They could emphasise the high social status of the buried person or be the result of ritual actions resulting from the special sacral role of these animals.

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